New in the Fourth Canadian Edition

Instructor Supplements

Part I Foundations

Chapter 1 Doing Social Research

Learning Objectives

Introduction

Why Do Social Research?

Alternatives to Social Research

Authority

Tradition

Common Sense

Media Myths

Personal Experience

How Science Works

Science

The Scientific Community

The Scientific Method and Attitude

Steps in the Research Process

Use of Research

Academic Research

Applied Research

Purpose of a Study

Exploration

Description

Explanation

Time Dimension in Research

Cross-Sectional Research

Longitudinal Research

Time-Series Study

Panel Study

Cohort Study

Case Studies

Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches

Quantitative Data Collection Techniques

Experiments

Surveys

Content Analysis

Existing Statistics

Qualitative Data Collection Techniques

Qualitative Interviews

Focus Groups

Field Research

Historical Research

Content Analysis

Chapter Summary

Review Questions

Exercises

Chapter 2 Theory and Social Research

Learning Objectives

Introduction

What is Theory?

Levels of Theory

Empirical Generalizations and Middle-Range Theory

The Parts of Theory

Assumptions

Agency and Structure

Ontology and Epistemology

Two Major Paradigms

Positivist Approach

Interpretive Approach

Major Theoretical Frameworks

Direction of Theorizing

Deductive Approach

Inductive Approach

Explaining Relationships in Social Research

Causal Explanation

Temporal order

Association

Eliminating Alternatives

Chapter Summary

Review Questions

Exercises

Chapter 3 Ethics in Social Research

Learning Objectives

Introduction

Why Be Ethical?

Scientific Misconduct

Unethical but Legal

Power Relations

Ethical Issues Involving Research Participants

Origins of Research Participant Protection

Physical Harm, Psychological Abuse, and Legal Jeopardy

Physical Harm

Psychological Abuse, Stress, or Loss of Self-Esteem

Legal Harm

Other Harm to Participants

Maximizing Benefit

Deception and Consent

Informed Consent

Special Populations and New Inequalities

Privacy, Anonymity, and Confidentiality

Privacy

Anonymity

Confidentiality

Privacy, Anonymity, and Confidentiality in Online Research

Respect for Human Dignity

Mandated Protections of Research Participants

Ethics and the Scientific Community

Ethics and The Sponsors of Research

Whistle-Blowing

Arriving at Particular Findings

Limits on How to Conduct Studies

Suppressing Findings

Concealing the True Sponsor

Politics of Research

Chapter Summary

Review Questions

Exercises

Chapter 4 Reviewing the Scholarly Literature and Planning a Study

Learning Objectives

Introduction

Locating Relevant Sources

How to Find Research Literature

Books

Periodicals

Scholarly Journals

Other Types of Periodicals

Dissertations

Government Documents

Policy Reports

Citation Styles

How To Conduct a Systematic Literature Review

Define and Refine a Topic

Design a Search Strategy

Locate Research Reports

Taking Notes

What to Record

Organize Your Notes

Writing the Review

Synthesize

Avoid Failing to Synthesize

Avoid Over-quoting

Do Not Plagiarize

The Difference Between a Good Review and a Bad Review

Chapter Summary

Review Questions

Exercises

Chapter 5 Designing a Study

Learning Objectives

Introduction

Qualitative and Quantitative Orientations Toward Research

Linear and Nonlinear Paths

Preplanned and Emergent Research Questions

Qualitative Design Issues

The Language of Cases and Contexts

The Context Is Critical

The Case and the Process

Interpretation

Quantitative Design Issues

The Language of Variables and Hypotheses

Variation and Variables

Types of Variables

Causal Theory and Hypotheses

The Hypothesis and Causality

Testing and Refining Hypotheses

Types of Hypotheses

Aspects of Explanation

Clarity About Units and Levels of Analysis

Ecological Fallacy

Example

Reductionism

Example

Spuriousness

Example 1

Example 2

Tautology and Teleology

From the Research Question to Hypotheses

Chapter Summary

Review Questions

Exercises

Chapter 6 Qualitative and Quantitative Measurement

Learning Objectives

Introduction

Why Measure?

Quantitative and Qualitative Measurement

Parts of the Measurement Process

Quantitative Conceptualization and Operationalization

Qualitative Conceptualization and Operationalization

Conceptualization

Operationalization

Reliability and Validity

Reliability and Validity in Quantitative Research

Reliability

How to Improve Reliability

Clear Conceptualization

Increase the Level of Measurement

Use Multiple Indicators of a Variable

Use Pretests, Pilot Studies, and Replication

Validity

Types of Measurement Validity

Face Validity

Content Validity

Criterion Validity

Reliability and Validity in Qualitative Research

Reliability

Validity

The Relationship between Reliability and Validity

Other Uses of the Terms Reliability and Validity

Reliability

Internal Validity

External Validity

Statistical Validity

A Guide to Quantitative Measurement

Levels of Measurement

Continuous and Discrete Variables

Four Levels of Measurement

Precision and Levels

Distinguishing among the Four Levels

Mutually Exclusive and Exhaustive Attributes

Specialized Measures: Scales and Indices

Indices and Scales

Index Construction

The Purpose

Scales

The Purpose

Logic of Scaling

Commonly Used Scales

Likert Scale

Rates and Standardization

Chapter Summary

Review Questions

Exercises

Chapter 7 Qualitative and Quantitative Sampling

Learning Objectives

Introduction

Nonprobability Sampling

Haphazard, Accidental, or Convenience Sampling

Quota Sampling

Purposive Sampling

Snowball Sampling

Sequential Sampling

Probability Sampling

Populations, Elements, and Sampling Frames

Why Random?

Types of Probability Samples

Simple Random

Systematic Sampling

Stratified Sampling

Cluster Sampling

Probability Proportionate to Size (PPS)

Random-Digit Dialing

Hidden Populations

How Large Should a Sample Be?

Drawing Inferences

Chapter Summary

Review Questions

Exercises

Part II Conducting Quantitative Research

Chapter 8 Survey Research

Learning Objectives

Introduction

Research Questions Appropriate for a Survey

The Logic of Survey Research

What Is a Survey?

Steps in Conducting a Survey

Constructing the Questionnaire

Principles of Good Question Writing

Aiding Respondent Recall

Questions Requiring Special Consideration

Threatening Questions

Socially Desirable Questions

Knowledge Questions

Skip or Contingency Questions

Open versus Closed Questions

Nonattitudes and the Middle Positions

Agree/Disagree, Rankings or Ratings?

Wording Issues

Questionnaire Design Issues

Length of Survey or Questionnaire

Question Order or Sequence

Organization of Questionnaire

Order Effects

Context Effects

Format and Layout

Questionnaire Layout

Question Format

Nonresponse

Types of Surveys: Advantages and Disadvantages

Mail and Self-Administered Questionnaires

Advantages

Disadvantages

Online Surveys

Advantages

Disadvantages

Telephone Interviews

Advantages

Disadvantages

Face-to-Face Interviews

Advantages

Disadvantages

Interviewing

The Role of the Interviewer

Stages of an Interview

Training Interviewers

Interviewer Bias

Computer-Assisted Interviewing

The Ethical Survey

Chapter Summary

Review Questions

Exercises

Chapter 9 Experimental Research

Learning Objectives

Introduction

Research Questions Appropriate for an Experiment

The Issue of an Appropriate Technique

Research Questions for Experimental Research

Random Assignment

Why Randomly Assign?

How to Randomly Assign

Matching versus Random Assignment

Experimental Design Logic

The Language of Experiments

Parts of the Experiment

Steps in Conducting an Experiment

Control in Experiments

Types of Design

Classical Experimental Design

Example

Pre-experimental Designs

One-Shot Case Study Design

Example

One-Group Pretest–Post-test Design

Example

Static Group Comparison

Example

Quasi-Experimental and Special Designs

Two-Group Post-test–Only Design

Interrupted Time Series

Equivalent Time Series

Latin Square Designs

Solomon Four-Group Design

Factorial Designs

Design Notation

Internal and External Validity

The Logic of Internal Validity

Threats to Internal Validity

Selection Bias

History Effects

Maturation

Testing Effect

Instrumentation

Mortality

Statistical Regression

Diffusion of Treatment or Contamination

Experimenter Expectancy

External Validity and Field Experiments

Reactivity

Field Experiments

Natural Experiments

Practical Considerations

Planning and Pilot Tests

Instructions to Subjects

Post-experiment Interview

Results of Experimental Research: Making Comparisons

A Word on Ethics

Chapter Summary

Review Questions

Exercises

Chapter 10 Nonreactive Quantitative Research and Secondary Analysis

Learning Objectives

Introduction

Nonreactive Measurement

The Logic of Nonreactive Research

Varieties of Nonreactive or Unobtrusive Observation

Recording and Documentation

Quantitative Content Analysis

What Is Content Analysis?

Topics Appropriate for Quantitative Content Analysis

Measurement and Coding

General Issues

Units

What Is Measured?

Coding, Validity, and Reliability

Manifest Coding

Latent Coding

Intercoder Reliability

How to Conduct Content Analysis Research

Question Formulation

Units of Analysis

Sampling

Variables and Constructing Coding Categories

Inferences

Existing Statistics and Documents and Secondary Data Analysis

Appropriate Topics

Social Indicators

Locating Data

Locating Existing Statistics

Secondary Survey Data

Limitations

Units of Analysis and Variable Attributes

Validity

Reliability

Missing Data

Ethical Concerns

Chapter Summary

Review Questions

Exercises

Chapter 11 Analysis of Quantitative Data

Learning Objectives

Introduction

Dealing with Data

Coding Data

Entering Data

Cleaning Data

Results with One Variable

Frequency Distributions

Measures of Central Tendency

Measures of Variation

Results with Two Variables

A Bivariate Relationship

Seeing the Relationship: The Scattergram

What Is a Scattergram (or Scatterplot)?

How to Construct a Scattergram

What Can You Learn from the Scattergram?

Form

Direction

Precision

Bivariate Tables

What Is a Bivariate Table?

Reading a Percentaged Table

Bivariate Tables without Percentages

Measures of Association

More than two Variables

Statistical Control

Constructing Trivariate Tables

Linear Regression Analysis

Inferential Statistics

The Purpose of Inferential Statistics

Statistical Significance

Levels of Significance

Type I and Type II Errors

Chapter Summary

Review Questions

Exercises

Part III Conducting Qualitative Research

Chapter 12 Qualitative Interviewing

Learning Objectives

Introduction

Research Questions Appropriate for Qualitative Interviewing

Similarities and Differences between Qualitative Interviews and Friendly Conversations

Key Elements in Qualitative Interviewing

Interview Guide

Asking Questions in Qualitative Interviews

Kvale Question Types

Sampling in Qualitative Interviews

How Many People to Interview?

Incentives

Interview Sites

Recording and Transcribing

Advantages and Limitations of Qualitative Interviews

From the Perspective of the Interviewee

Data Rich with Description

Development of New Theories

Development of New Avenues of Research

Problems with Validity and Reliability

Focus Groups

The Focus Group Procedure

The Role of the Moderator

Composition of Focus Groups

The Number of Groups in a Focus Group Study

Focus Groups as Social Groups

Qualitative Data Resources

Chapter Summary

Review Questions

Exercises

Chapter 13 Field Research

Learning Objectives

Introduction

Questions Appropriate for Field Research

Ethnography

The Logic of Field Research

What Is Field Research?

Steps in a Field Research Project

Preparing, Reading, and Defocusing

Selecting a Field Site and Gaining Access to It

Entering the Field and Establishing Social Relations with Members

Level of Involvement

Strategy for Entering

Planning

Negotiating

Disclosing

Adopting a Social Role and Learning the Ropes

Presentation of Self

Researcher as Instrument

An Attitude of Strangeness

Building Rapport

Charm and Trust

Understanding

Relations in the Field

Roles in the Field

Pre-existing versus Created Roles

Limits on the Role Chosen

Normalizing Social Research

Maintaining Relations

Social Relations

Small Favours

Conflicts in the Field

Appearing Interested

Observing and Collecting Data

Watching and Listening

Observing

Listening

Taking Notes

Types of Field Notes

Jotted Notes

Direct Observation Notes

Researcher Inference Notes

Analytic Notes

Personal Notes

Maps and Diagrams

Machine Recordings to Supplement Memory

Data Quality

Trustworthiness of Data

Credibility

Transferability

Dependability

Confirmability

Focusing and Sampling

Focusing

Sampling

Leaving the Field

Ethical Dilemmas of Field Research

Deception

Confidentiality

Involvement with Deviants

Publishing Field Reports

Chapter Summary

Review Questions

Exercises

Chapter 14 Nonreactive Qualitative Research

Learning Objectives

Introduction

Historical research

Research Questions Appropriate for Historical Research

The Logic of Historical Research and Quantitative Research

Quantitative versus Historical Research

The Logic of Historical Research and Interpretive Research

A Distinct Historical Approach

Similarities to Field Research

Unique Features of Historical Research

Steps in a Historical Research Project

Conceptualizing the Object of Inquiry

Locating Evidence

Evaluating Quality of Evidence

Organizing Evidence

Synthesizing

Writing a Report

Data and Evidence in Historical Context

Types of Historical Evidence

Primary Sources

Secondary Sources

Running Records

Recollections

Research with Secondary Sources

Uses and Limitations

Potential Problems

Research with Primary Sources

Equivalence in Historical Research

The Importance of Equivalence

Contextual Equivalence

Conceptual Equivalence

The Qualitative Analysis of Text

Research Problems Appropriate for Qualitative Content Analysis

The Major Differences between Qualitative and Quantitative Content Analyses

The Different Types of Qualitative Content Analyses

Discourse Analysis

Chapter Summary

Review Questions

Exercises

Chapter 15 Analysis of Qualitative Data

Learning Objectives

Introduction

Comparing Methods of Data Analysis

Similarities

Differences

Explanations and Qualitative Data

Coding and Concept Formation

Conceptualization

Coding Qualitative Data

Analytical Memo Writing

Did I Do It Right?

Other Techniques

Flowchart and Time Sequence

Diagrams

Chapter Summary

Review Questions

Exercises

Part IV Mixing Quantitative and Qualitative Methods

Chapter 16 Combining Methods in Social Science Research

Learning Objectives

Introduction

Overall Advantages and Disadvantages of the Quantitative Approaches

Advantages and Disadvantages of Specific Quantitative Approaches

Survey Research

Experiments

Nonreactive Methods

Overall Advantages and Disadvantages of Qualitative Approaches

Advantages and Disadvantages of Specific Qualitative Approaches

Qualitative Interviews

Focus Groups

Field Research

Historical Research

Qualitative Content Analysis

Mixing Methods in Qualitative-only and Quantitative-only Analyses

Mixing Quantitative Methods with Quantitative Methods

Mixing Qualitative Methods with Qualitative Methods

Mixing Quantitative and Qualitative Methods

The Stages of Mixed Methods Research

Priority and Sequence in Data Collection

Sequential and Concurrent as Procedure in Data Analysis

Sampling in Mixed Methods Designs

The Role of Theory in Mixed Methods Research

Theory in Sequential Mixed Methods Studies

Theory in Concurrent Mixed Methods Studies

Obtaining Conflicting Results

Arguments Against Mixing Methods

Chapter Summary

Review Questions

Exercises

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